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Thorium


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Atomic symbol: Th
Atomic number: 90
Atomic weight: 232.0381
Atomic volume: 19.9 cm3/mol
Density: 11.7 g/cm3
Period Number: 7
Group number: none
Group name: Rare Earth, Actinides
Element classification: Metal


States


Phase at room temperature: Solid
Melting Point: 2023.2 K
Boiling point: 5123 K
Heat of fusion: 16.10 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization: 514.40 kJ/mol


Energies


Ionization Energy: 6.08 eV
1st ionization energy: 587 kJ/mole
2nd ionization energy: 1110 kJ/mole
3rd ionization energy: 1930 kJ/mole
Electronegativity: 1.3
Electron affinity: kJ/mole
Specific heat: 0.12 J/gK
Heat atomization: 576 kJ/mole atoms


Oxidation & Electrons


Shells: 2,8,18,32,18,10,2
Electron Shell Configuration: [Rn] 6d2 7s2
Minimum oxidation number: 0
Maximum oxidation number: 4
Minimum common oxidation number: 0
Maximum common oxidation no: 4


Appearance & Characteristics


Structure:: fcc: face-centered cubic
Color: white
Hardness: mohs
Toxicity: ?
Characteristics: Radioactive
Uses: gas mantles (ThO2)


Reactions


Reaction with air: mild, w/ht ignites =>ThO2
Reaction with 6M HCl: mild
Reaction with 15M HNO3: passivated
Reaction with 6M NaOH: none


Other Forms


Number of isotopes: 3
Oxide(s): ThO2
Hydride(s): ThH2 Th4H15
Chloride(s): ThCl4


Radius


Atomic Radius: 179 pm
Ionic radius (1- ion): pm
Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (2- ion): pm
Ionic radius (2+ ion): pm
Ionic radius (3+ ion): pm


Conductivity


Thermal conductivity: 54 J/m-sec-deg
Electrical conductivity: 76.923 1/mohm-cm
Polarizability: 32.1 A^3


Abundance


Source: Monazite(phosphate),U extractn
Relative abundance solar system: -1.475 log
Abundance earth's crust: 1 log
Estimated crustal abundance: 9.6 milligrams per kilogram
Estimated oceanic abundance: 1×10-6 milligrams per liter
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


History


(Thor, Scandinavian god of war) Discovered by Berzelius in 1828. Much of the internal heat the earth produces has been attributed to thorium and uranium. Because of its atomic weight, valence, etc., it is now considered to be the second member of the actinide series of elements.


Sources


Thorium occurs in thorite and in thorianite. Large deposits of thorium minerals have been reported in New England and elsewhere, but these have not yet been exploited. Thorium is now thought to be about three times as abundant as uranium and about as abundant as lead or molybdenum. Thorium is recovered commercially from the mineral monazite, which contains from 3 to 9% ThO2 along with rare-earth minerals.


Properties


When pure, thorium is a silvery-white metal which is air-stable and retains its luster for several months. When contaminated with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming gray and finally black. The physical properties of thorium are greatly influenced by the degree of contamination with the oxide. The purest specimens often contain several tenths of a percent of the oxide. High-purity thorium has been made. Pure thorium is soft, very ductile, and can be cold-rolled, swaged, and drawn. Thorium is dimorphic, changing at 14000C from a cubic to a body-centered cubic structure. Thorium oxide has a melting point of 33000C, which is the highest of all oxides. Only a few elements, such as tungsten, and a few compounds, such as tantalum carbide, have higher melting points. Thorium is slowly attacked by water, but does not dissolve readily in most common acids, except hydrochloric. Powdered thorium metal is often pyrophoric and should be handled carefully. When heated in air, thorium turnings ignite and burn brilliantly with a white light.


Uses


The metal is a source of nuclear power. There is probably more energy available for use from thorium in the minerals of the earth's crust than from both uranium and fossil fuels. Any sizable demand from thorium as a nuclear fuel is still several years in the future. Work has been done in developing thorium cycle converter-reactor systems. Several prototypes, including the HTGR (high-temperature gas-cooled reactor) and MSRE (molten salt converter reactor experiment), have operated. While the HTGR reactors are efficient, they are not expected to become important commercially for many years because of certain operating difficulties.

The principal use of thorium has been in the preparation of the Welsbach mantle, used for portable gas lights. These mantles, consisting of thorium oxide with about 1% cerium oxide and other ingredients, glow with a dazzling light when heated in a gas flame. Thorium is an important alloying element in magnesium, imparting high strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures. Because thorium has a low work-function and high electron emission, it is used to coat tungsten wire used in electronic equipment. The oxide is also used to control the grain size of tungsten used for electric lamps; it is also used for high-temperature laboratory crucibles. Glasses containing thorium oxide have a high refractive index and low dispersion. Consequently, they find application in high quality lenses for cameras and scientific instruments. Thorium oxide has also found use as a catalyst in the conversion of ammonia to nitric acid, in petroleum cracking, and in producing sulfuric acid.


Isotopes


Twenty five isotopes of thorium are known with atomic masses ranging from 212 to 236. All are unstable. 232Th occurs naturally and has a half-life of 1.4 x 1010 years. It is an alpha emitter. 232Th goes through six alpha and four beta decay steps before becoming the stable isotope 208Pb. 232Th is sufficiently radioactive to expose a photographic plate in a few hours. Thorium disintegrates with the production of "thoron" (220Rn), which is an alpha emitter and presents a radiation hazard. Good ventilation of areas where thorium is stored or handled is therefore essential.

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